The Systematic Destruction of Paganism
The Decrees of Theodosius
The 300s were an incredible century that began under the Emperor Diocletian’s Great persecution of Christians, a relatively minor religious group comprising roughly 5-10% of the total population of the empire. They ended with the ancient religion completely outlawed and Christianity the only legal religion. It’s incredible to think some people were born watching Christianity be a punishable offense, and by the end of their life, the complete reversal had happened. Christians controlled the entire empire and had banned all other faiths except Catholicism.
We’re going to trace this through the legal decrees in the 4th century to see how this incredible change took place and how it transformed the West forever. What’s odd is how hard it is to find this information. Many of these decrees have no English translations. These ones had to be translated from Latin. It would seem that even to those interested in these topics, this is seen as an embarrassing part of Christian history. By the end, you’ll see that the narrative that the pagans simply lost their faith and willingly converted to Christianity in droves is little more than a Christian fiction to cover the century of brutal oppression and systematic destruction of the ancient religion.
We begin the century with the edicts and persecutions of Christians by the emperor Diocletian.
It’s essential to start with these because the persecution of paganism was justified due to the persecution of Diocletian. Although Authors like Candida Moss have contended that Diocletian’s restrictions on Christianity were inconsistently applied and short-lived (lasting about 8 years until Galerius’ Edict of Toleration in 311). Most of our information on these persecutions survives in Church sources, many of which, like Eusebius, are unreliable and possibly fictitious propaganda.
299 CE
Source: Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.61
Diocletian, while sacrificing, found that his divinations failed because some attendants (Christians) had signed themselves with the cross. The chief soothsayer declared that “profane persons” (Christians) were obstructing the rites. Diocletian ordered all palace residents and soldiers to sacrifice or be punished.
Source: Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8 (appendix)
Diocletian first persecuted Christians in his household and army, degrading them from rank or punishing them, and then urged his fellow emperors toward a wider persecution.
23 February 303 CE
Source: Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.4
First edict of persecution: churches were to be destroyed, Scriptures burned, Christian officials stripped of rank, household servants enslaved if they persisted.
Spring/Summer 303 CE
Source: Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.2.5
Second edict: Leaders of the churches everywhere are to be imprisoned and compelled to sacrifice.
Fall 303 CE
Source: Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.6.10
Third edict: Prisoners who sacrificed would be freed; those who refused faced torture. Many martyrs were recorded, especially in Africa, Egypt, and the Thebaid.
Early 304 CE
Source: Eusebius, De Martyribus Palestinae 3.1
Fourth edict: all inhabitants of the empire were commanded to sacrifice publicly to the gods. Persecution intensifies across provinces.
1 May 305 CE
Source: Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.1
Diocletian and Maximian abdicated. Caesars chosen were Severus and Maximinus Daia, promoted by Galerius. Constantine overlooked. Diocletian retires to Dalmatia.
Source: Socrates, Historia Ecclesiastica 1.2
Galerius, now senior Augustus, appointed Maximinus Caesar in the East and Severus Caesar in Italy.
11 November 308 CE
Source: Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 29.1
Conference at Carnuntum: Diocletian, Maximian, and Galerius met. Licinius appointed Augustus, joining Galerius, Maximinus Daia, Constantine, and Maxentius — six emperors at once.
30 April 311 CE
Source: Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.57
Galerius, stricken by illness, issued the Edict of Toleration: ending persecution, allowing Christians to assemble again and rebuild churches, provided they pray for the emperor and the state.
Edict of Toleration, 311 CE
Among other arrangements which we are always accustomed to make for the prosperity and welfare of the republic, we had desired formerly to bring all things into harmony with the ancient laws and public order of the Romans, and to provide that even the Christians who had left the religion of their fathers should come back to reason; since, indeed, the Christians themselves, for some reason, had followed such a caprice and had fallen into such a folly that they would not obey the institutes of antiquity, which perchance their own ancestors had first established; but at their own will and pleasure, they would thus make laws unto themselves which they should observe and would collect various peoples in diverse places in congregations. Finally when our law had been promulgated to the effect that they should conform to the institutes of antiquity, many were subdued by the fear of danger, many even suffered death. And yet since most of them persevered in their determination, and we saw that they neither paid the reverence and awe due to the gods, nor yet worship their own God, therefore we, in view of our most mild clemency and the constant habit by which we are accustomed to grant indulgence to all, we thought that we ought to grant our most prompt indulgence also to these, so that they may again be Christians and may hold their conventicles, provided they do nothing contrary to good order. But we shall tell the magistrates in another letter what they ought to do.
Wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes.
This edict is published at Nicomedia on the day before the Kalends of May, in our eighth consulship and the second of Maximinus.
312 CE Battle of the Milvian Bridge
The famous battle where Constantine claims to have seen a vision of the cross as the sign of his victory. At this time, Constantine is an emperor, but not the sole emperor.
313 CE Edict of Milan
When I, Constantine Augustus, as well as I, Licinius Augustus, had fortunately met near Mediolanum (Milan), and were considering everything that pertained to the public welfare and security, we thought that, among other things which we saw would be for the good of many, those regulations pertaining to the reverence of the Divinity ought certainly to be made first, so that we might grant to the Christians and to all others full authority to observe that religion which each preferred ; whence any Divinity whatsoever in the seat of the heavens may be propitious and kindly disposed to us and all who are placed under our rule. And thus by this wholesome counsel and most upright provision we thought to arrange that no one whatsoever should be denied the opportunity to give his heart to the observance of the Christian religion, or of that religion which he should think best for himself, so that the Supreme Deity, to whose worship we freely yield our hearts, may show in all things His usual favor and benevolence. Therefore, your Worship should know that it has pleased us to remove all conditions whatsoever, which were in the rescripts formerly given to you officially, concerning the Christians, and now any one of these who wishes to observe the Christian religion may do so freely and openly, without any disturbance or molestation. We thought it fit to commend these things most fully to your care that you may know that we have given to those Christians free and unrestricted opportunity of religious worship. When you see that this has been granted to them by us, your Worship will know that we have also conceded to other religions the right of open and free observance of their worship for the sake of the peace of our times, that each one may have the free opportunity to worship as he pleases ; this regulation is made that we may not seem to detract aught from any dignity or any religion. Moreover, in the case of the Christians especially, we esteemed it best to order that if it happens that anyone heretofore has bought from our treasury or from anyone whatsoever, those places where they were previously accustomed to assemble, concerning which a certain decree had been made and a letter sent to you officially, the same shall be restored to the Christians without payment or any claim of recompense and without any kind of fraud or deception, Those, moreover, who have obtained the same by gift, are likewise to return them at once to the Christians. Besides, both those who have purchased and those who have secured them by gift, are to appeal to the vicar if they seek any recompense from our bounty, that they may be cared for through our clemency. All this property ought to be delivered at once to the community of the Christians through your intercession, and without delay. And since these Christians are known to have possessed not only those places in which they were accustomed to assemble, but also other property, namely the churches, belonging to them as a corporation and not as individuals, all these things which we have included under the above law, you will order to be restored, without any hesitation or controversy at all, to these Christians, that is to say to the corporations and their conventicles :— providing, of course, that the above arrangements be followed so that those who return the same without payment, as we have said, may hope for an indemnity from our bounty. In all these circumstances you ought to tender your most efficacious intervention to the community of the Christians, that our command may be carried into effect as quickly as possible, whereby, moreover, through our clemency, public order may be secured. Let this be done so that, as we have said above, Divine favor towards us, which, under the most important circumstances we have already experienced, may, for all time, preserve and prosper our successes together with the good of the state. Moreover, in order that the statement of this decree of our good will may come to the notice of all, this rescript, published by your decree, shall be announced everywhere and brought to the knowledge of all, so that the decree of this, our benevolence, cannot be concealed.
Now we begin with the laws against Paganism outlined in the Codes of Theodosius. Almost immediately following the edicts providing toleration, the Christians moved to try to destroy all other faiths.
While these are called the Theodosian codes, not all are from Theodosius himself. They were compiled in 438 CE to include all the anti-pagan laws of the previous century and codified for posterity.
Theodosian Codes
X.1 – Constantine to Maximus (Serdica, 317 CE)
Translation:
“If it is established that some portent has appeared concerning our palace or other public works, in accordance with the ancient custom let the haruspices be consulted, and their collected writings be carefully submitted to our knowledge. Others too may be permitted to observe this custom, provided they abstain from domestic sacrifices, which are expressly forbidden. As for the portent concerning the amphitheater, about which you wrote to Heraclianus the tribune and master of offices, know that it has been reported to us.
Dated: 16th day before the Kalends of January at Serdica; received the 8th day before the Ides of March, during the consulship of Crispus (II) and Constantine (II).”
Commentary:
Constantine here allows certain public divinatory rites (haruspicy, omen-reading) when they concern state property like palaces or amphitheaters.
Crucially, he forbids private/domestic sacrifices, which could be connected with family cults or traditional household religion.
This reflects his early policy: pagan rites may continue if tied to public welfare (omens about buildings, cities, armies), but private cult practice is curtailed.
It’s a transitional moment: Constantine is not abolishing paganism, but redefining it under state control.
325 CE - First Council of Nicaea
X.2 – Constantius II to Madalianus (341 CE)
Translation:
“Let superstition cease, let the madness of sacrifices be abolished. Whoever dares to perform sacrifices contrary to the law of our divine father and this command of our mildness shall suffer immediate punishment, and the proper penalty shall be exacted.
Issued in the consulship of Marcellinus and Probinus.”
Commentary:
Here the tone shifts: all sacrifices are now explicitly banned.
Constantius II, a strong pro-Nicene emperor, intensifies restrictions beyond Constantine’s compromise.
The term “superstitio” marks pagan rites as illegitimate compared to “religio” (Christianity).
This begins a clear criminalization of sacrificial practice.
Enforcement, however, was uneven: evidence suggests sacrifices still occurred, especially outside the capital.
X.3 – Constantius II and Constans to Catullinus (342 CE)
Translation:
“Although all superstition must be wholly destroyed, nevertheless, we wish the temples situated outside the walls to remain untouched and unharmed. For since the origin of the games and spectacles arose from some of them, it is not fitting to demolish those places from which the ancient solemnities of public enjoyment are provided for the Roman people.
Dated the Kalends of November, in the consulship of Constantius (IV) and Constans (III).”
Commentary:
This looks like a compromise decree.
Even while affirming that “superstition” (pagan rites) must be eradicated, the emperors preserve certain temples outside city walls.
Why? Because temples were tied to games, circuses, and spectacles, which were politically important.
This shows the pragmatic side of imperial policy: destroy the religion, but keep the entertainment infrastructure.
A reminder: emperors didn’t want riots by cutting off public pleasures.
X.4 – Constantius II to Taurus (346 CE)
Translation:
“It is decreed that in all places and cities the temples shall be immediately closed, and access forbidden to everyone. No opportunity for crime shall be given to the wicked. We will that all abstain from sacrifices. But if anyone should commit such an act, let him be struck down by the avenging sword. The property of those condemned shall be confiscated to the treasury. Likewise, governors of provinces shall be punished if they neglect to avenge these crimes.
Dated the Kalends of December, in the consulship of Constantius (IV) and Constantius (III).”
Commentary:
This is one of the harshest decrees of Constantius:
Temples closed everywhere.
Sacrifices are punishable by death.
Property confiscated.
Provincial governors are held liable if they fail to enforce it.
This is an aggressive legal attack on pagan cult.
Still, archaeological evidence suggests that many temples remained in use; enforcement likely varied significantly.
The rhetoric (“wicked,” “crime”) reveals how the ancient religion was being reframed as criminality rather than tradition.
II.12 – Constantius II and Constans (346 CE)
Translation:
“By our law of mildness we forbid bishops to be accused in the courts. For if accusations could freely be brought against them, malicious minds might abuse such liberty. Therefore, if any complaint is made against a bishop, it is fitting that it be investigated only by other bishops, so that a timely and convenient hearing may be arranged.
Dated 23 September (IX Kal. Oct.), received 7 October, in the consulship of Arbetio and Lollianus.”
Commentary:
Bishops are made immune from secular courts.
Only other bishops may judge them.
Strengthens the church’s autonomy from state judicial interference.
Shows Constantine’s successors already treating bishops as a legally privileged estate.
X.5 – Constantius II to Cereales (356 CE)
Translation:
“The nocturnal sacrifices permitted by the usurper Magnentius are abolished, and the unlawful license is henceforth suppressed. Etc.
Dated the 9th day before the Kalends of December, in the consulship of Constantius (VI) and Julian (Caesar, II).”
Commentary:
This specifically targets night sacrifices, which were associated with mystery cults, magic, and divination.
The decree also delegitimizes Magnentius (a rival emperor) by linking him with “nefarious” religious practices.
The ban on nocturnal rites fits a broader late-antique anxiety about secret gatherings, often framed as conspiratorial or magical.
By this point, Christian emperors are framing pagan ritual not just as impious but as a threat to political order.
X.6 – Constantius II and Julian (the Philosopher) Caesar (Milan, 357 CE)
Translation:
“We order that those who are discovered either sacrificing or worshipping images shall suffer the penalty of capital punishment.
Dated 11th day before the Kalends of March, at Milan, in the consulship of Constantius (VIII) and Julian (Caesar).”
Commentary:
This is one of the earliest explicit death penalties for both sacrifice and image worship.
“Worshipping images” broadens the scope beyond animal sacrifice to include common pagan acts (incense, garlands, bowing before statues).
Issued with Julian as Caesar, though ironically, within a few years (361–363), he would reverse policy and restore temples.
This law shows Constantius II’s uncompromising stance: pagan rituals are not private piety but capital crimes.
II.13 – Constantius II & Julian (the Philosopher) Caesar (357 CE)
Translation:
“We firmly command that the privileges granted to the Church of Rome and to its clerics be maintained.
Dated 10 November (IV Id. Nov.), Milan, in the consulship of Constantius (IX) and Julian (II, as Caesar).”
Commentary:
Explicitly protects the privileges of the Roman Church.
Significance: Rome’s primacy was already legally recognized before Theodosius’ edict of 380.
Reinforces the special legal and fiscal status of the Roman clergy.
Co-signed by Julian as Caesar; ironic, given his later reversal of such laws.
II.14 – Constantius II & Julian (the Philosopher) Caesar (357 CE)
Translation (abridged):
“No unjust exaction or burden shall be imposed on clerics. They are exempt from sordid duties and market obligations. Whatever they acquire by thrift or trade, if used for the poor, shall be considered religious gain. Clerics’ families, marriages, sons and daughters, and their ministries shall remain exempt from taxes and public burdens.
Dated 6 December (VIII Id. Dec.), Milan, read into the records 28 December, in the consulship of Constantius (IX) and Julian (II).”
Commentary:
This decree establishes broad fiscal immunities for the clergy:
Exempt from taxes and corvée labor.
Exempt from market dues.
Allowed to use profits for charity.
Immunities extend to their families.
Effectively, bishops and clergy form a privileged legal caste within the empire.
A turning point: Christianity is not only tolerated but materially incentivized through legal privilege.
361-363 CE Julian the Philosopher attempts to reinstitute the Ancient Religion.
Summary of His Main Policies
Restoration of Pagan Sacrifice & Temples — reopened shrines closed under Constantius.
Priestly Reform — tried to impose a Christian-like moral discipline on pagan priests.
Philanthropy & Welfare — ordered pagan temples to provide social care, copying Christian charity.
Ban on Christian Teachers — forbade Christians from teaching Greek literature.
Restrictions on Christian Privileges — withdrew their financial exemptions, barred them from some offices.
Policy of Religious Toleration (in theory) — recalled exiled bishops of all sects (Arian, Donatist, etc.), hoping division would weaken Christianity.
I.2 – The Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE)
Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I
Translation:
“We wish all peoples, whom our clemency governs, to hold the religion which the divine Apostle Peter delivered to the Romans, and which is kept until now, as made manifest by the pontiff Damasus and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. That is, according to apostolic teaching and gospel doctrine, we believe in one divinity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, of equal majesty in a holy Trinity. By this law we command that they alone bear the name of Catholic Christians; all others we judge insane and mad, and they shall first suffer divine vengeance, and afterwards the punishment of our authority, which we have assumed by heavenly will.
Dated 27 February (3 Kal. Mart.), Thessalonica, in the consulship of Gratian (V) and Theodosius (I).”
Commentary:
This is the famous Edict of Thessalonica (Cunctos populos).
It declares Nicene Christianity (Catholic faith) as the official religion of the Roman Empire.
Authority is tied to specific bishops: Damasus of Rome and Peter of Alexandria, making their doctrinal position normative.
All other Christian groups (Arians, Eunomians, etc.) are deemed heretics and madmen, punished by God and the emperor.
Marks the turning point: Rome is now a Christian state. Paganism is marginalized, but this decree defines orthodoxy within Christianity itself.
X.7 – Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I (Constantinople, 389 CE)
Translation:
“If anyone, like a madman and sacrilegious, immerses himself in forbidden sacrifices by day or night, or believes he ought to approach a shrine or temple for committing such a crime, let him be subjected to proscription. For we rightly instruct that the gods are to be honored with pure prayers, not profaned with dreadful chants.
Dated 12th day before the Kalends of January, at Constantinople, during the consulship of Eucherius and Syagrius.”
Commentary:
This decree frames pagan sacrifice as insanity (“quasi insanus et sacrilegus”).
The punishment is proscription (loss of civil rights and confiscation of property).
Note the rhetorical shift: pagan deities are still called gods (deos), but they must be worshipped only by “chaste prayers” — essentially redefining “true religion” in Christian terms.
The law is as much propaganda as legislation, urging Christians to see sacrifice as obscene songs and madness.
X.8 – Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I to Palladius, Duke of Osroene (Constantinople, 390 CE)
Translation:
“By authority of the public council we decree that the temple, once dedicated to assemblies and now also common to the people, in which images are displayed—works of art given value as though divine—shall remain open to the public at all times. We do not permit the oracle to interfere in this matter. Thus, the people of the city and the gathered crowd may see it, with the solemnity of vows preserved. By our authority, your administration ensures that the temple is open, but it must not be believed that access for forbidden sacrifices is thereby permitted.
Dated the day before the Kalends of December, at Constantinople, during the consulship of Antonius and Syagrius.”
Commentary:
This is a nuanced decree: temples could remain open as museums or civic halls, not as cult sites.
It reflects the “museumization” of pagan temples in the late empire: art and statues were admired aesthetically, not religiously.
The law distinguishes viewing statues (allowed) from sacrificing before them (forbidden).
This shows the regime’s balancing act: eliminating pagan ritual while preserving cultural heritage.
X.9 – Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I to Cynegius, Praetorian Prefect (Constantinople, 386 CE)
Translation:
“Let no one dare to perform a sacrifice, whereby by inspecting livers or other omens he seeks vain hopes or, worse, learns the future by execrable consultation. For heavier punishment shall threaten those who, against the prohibition, attempt to inquire into the truth of present or future events.
Dated the 8th day before the Kalends of June, at Constantinople, during the consulship of Arcadius (I) and Bauto.”
Commentary:
This targets haruspicy and divination, especially liver inspection.
Fortune-telling was seen as both impious and politically dangerous.
The law threatens torture and harsher punishments for divinatory rites.
This connects paganism with subversion and conspiracy, reinforcing its criminalization.
X.10 – Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I to Albinus, Praetorian Prefect (Milan, 391 CE)
Translation:
“No one shall defile himself with sacrifices; no one shall slay an innocent victim; no one shall approach shrines, enter temples, or gaze upon images fashioned by mortal hands, lest he incur divine as well as human punishment.
Judges are bound by this same law: if anyone devoted to profane rites enters a temple anywhere, whether in a city or on a journey, to worship, he shall immediately pay a fine of fifteen pounds of gold, and the judge who fails to oppose or report him shall forfeit his office. Likewise, consular governors, correctors, and presidents, with their staffs, are subject to equal penalty if negligent.
Dated 6th day before the Kalends of March, at Milan, during the consulship of Tatianus and Symmachus.”
Commentary:
This decree is sweeping and administrative:
Forbids all sacrifices, shrine visits, or even looking at images for worship.
Imposes heavy fines (15 lbs of gold!≈ $553,000 USD) on individuals.
Holds officials personally liable, dissolving their offices if they fail to enforce it.
This is the culmination of Theodosius I’s anti-pagan policy, part of the so-called “Theodosian decrees” (389–392).
The penalties hit both private citizens and public officials, ensuring enforcement across the empire.
Effectively, this law ends public pagan cults in the Roman Empire. Paganism survives only in rural practice (“paganus” literally “villager”).
X.11 – Theodosius I, Valentinian II, Arcadius to Evagrius, Augustal Prefect of Egypt (390 CE)
Translation:
“No one shall be permitted to sacrifice, no one shall wander about the temples, no one shall so much as suspect the shrines. They must recognize that access to profane places is barred to them by our law. If anyone dares attempt what is forbidden, let him know he is stripped of all privileges. If any judge, relying on his authority, enters such polluted places, he shall pay a fine of fifteen pounds of gold; if he resists, an equal amount is exacted for the treasury.
Dated 16th day before the Kalends of July, in the consulship of Tatianus and Symmachus.”
Commentary:
This decree targets Egypt, the heartland of traditional pagan worship, especially the cults of Isis and Serapis.
The law bans not only sacrifices but even wandering near temples (“templa circuire”), showing suspicion toward pilgrimage-like behavior.
Officials are punished if they enter pagan spaces — the same 15-lb gold fine seen earlier.
This is an attempt to lock down sacred spaces entirely, neutralizing Egypt’s temples as centers of resistance.
391 CE Bishop Theophilus and his mob destroy the Serapeum in Alexandria
X.12 – Theodosius I, Arcadius, Honorius to Rufinus, Praetorian Prefect (November 392 CE)
Translation (abridged):
“No one of any rank or class may kill a victim, kindle a household fire for a spirit, light lamps, burn incense, or hang garlands. Whoever dares to sacrifice or consult omens shall be judged guilty of treason (maiestas), even if no crime against the emperor is proven. It is enough that they have sought the illicit, uncovered the hidden, attempted the forbidden.
If anyone places incense before images and honors them, he shall be fined his house or property, which is confiscated to the treasury. If the act is done in a temple, shrine, or even another’s property without the owner’s knowledge, the fine is 25 lbs of gold. The accomplice shares equal liability.
Judges, defenders, and officials of each city must prosecute immediately. If they delay or show negligence, they are fined 30 lbs of gold and lose their offices.
Dated 8th day before the Ides of November, Constantinople, in the consulship of Arcadius (II) and Rufinus.”
Commentary:
This is one of the most comprehensive anti-pagan laws in the Theodosian Code.
It criminalizes not just sacrifices but every minor act of devotion: incense, garlands, lamps, even domestic hearth rituals.
Treats such acts as treason (a capital crime), because they imply challenging divine law and imperial order.
Heavy property confiscations and fines (25 lbs of gold≈ $921,000 USD) show the fiscal as well as religious motives.
Officials are made responsible under severe penalties — this law makes suppression structural and systemic.
394 CE The sacred fire of Vesta is extinguished
X.13 – Arcadius and Honorius to Rufinus, Praetorian Prefect (August 395 CE)
Translation:
“We decree that no one may approach any temple or celebrate sacrifices at any place or time. All who deviate from the Catholic faith must observe the decrees already issued, not daring to ignore those established against heretics or pagans. Punishments already set down by our divine father are to be more strictly enforced.
Governors, city leaders, defenders, and administrators of imperial estates must punish violations immediately. If they delay or show negligence, they incur the same punishments as the offenders, and dereliction may even be punished by death.
Dated 7th of August, Constantinople, in the consulship of Olybrius and Probinus.”
Commentary:
This decree strengthens continuity of enforcement. Older laws against heretics and pagans remain in effect, but are now to be applied with greater severity.
Provincial and municipal officials are held fully accountable.
Explicitly extends penalties to negligence. Failure to suppress pagan rites may be punished with capital punishment.
By 395, suppression is no longer occasional: it is part of the governing system of the empire.
X.14 – Arcadius and Honorius to Caesarius, Praetorian Prefect (399 CE)
Translation:
“If any privileges were formerly granted by ancient law to priests, ministers, prefects, or hierophants of the sacred, or by any other title, let them all be abolished. Let none take refuge in privileges when their profession is condemned by law.
Dated 7th of the same month, Constantinople, in the consulship of Arcadius (IV) and Honorius (III).”
Commentary:
Abolishes all legal privileges of pagan priesthoods.
In earlier Rome, priests had exemptions (e.g., from taxes, military service). This decree strips them away, treating priests not as public servants but as practitioners of an illicit cult.
Pagan priesthood is now an occupation without rights, without honor, without protection.
This is the legal “death blow” to the institutional framework of paganism.
X.15 – Arcadius and Honorius to Macrobius (Spain) and Proclianus (Gaul) (399 CE)
Translation:
“Although we forbid sacrifices, we wish the ornaments of public works to be preserved. If anyone attempts to remove them, claiming some rescript or law as authority, the papers shall be taken from them and sent to us. Those who issued such authorizations must pay a fine of two pounds of gold.
Dated 4th day before the Kalends of February, Ravenna, in the consulship of Theodore (V.C.).”
Commentary:
This law distinguishes between cult and culture:
Pagan sacrifices are banned.
Pagan art and architectural ornaments (statues, reliefs, decorative objects) are to be preserved as part of civic works.
It prevents unauthorized removal of ornaments — i.e., local officials or mobs stripping temples. The fine is 2 lbs of gold≈ $73,700 USD.
Reflects a tension: Christian emperors want to end pagan worship but also preserve Rome’s monumental heritage (especially since emperors still used classical imagery in art and politics).
A law of both preservation and control.
X.16 – Arcadius & Honorius to Eutychianus, Praetorian Prefect (399 CE)
Translation:
“If there are temples in the countryside, let them be demolished quietly, without crowds or commotion. For if these are torn down and removed, all material for superstition will be destroyed.
Dated 6 July, in the consulship of Theodore of Damascus.”
Commentary:
This law orders rural temples demolished, not just closed.
The instruction to avoid “crowd or commotion” reflects fear of rural riots (where pagan cults survived longer).
Contrast with earlier preservation orders: now, rural temples are targeted for elimination.
This continues the Christianization of the countryside. The origin of “paganus” (“villager”) as a synonym for “pagan.”
X.17 – Arcadius & Honorius to Apollodorus, Proconsul of Africa (399 CE)
Translation:
“Although we have already abolished profane rites by law, we do not abolish the festive assemblies of citizens and the common joy of all. Therefore, without sacrifice or damnable superstition, we decree that public pleasures may be offered according to ancient custom, and that banquets may be held if public vows require them.
Dated 20 August (13th day before the Kalends of September), at Patavium, in the consulship of Theodorus.”
Commentary:
A balancing decree: while sacrifices are banned, festivals and public banquets may continue, provided they are secular.
This preserves civic cohesion: festivals had social and political importance.
Reflects the transition from religious to cultural festivals — civic games, banquets, and spectacles were allowed if detached from cultic acts.
X.18 – Arcadius & Honorius to Apollodorus, Proconsul of Africa (399 CE)
Translation:
“No one shall presume to overthrow a temple that is empty of illicit rites under cover of our authority. We decree that the buildings are to remain intact. If anyone is caught sacrificing, he is to be punished by law, and the idols confiscated to the office for investigation.
Dated the same day, 20 August, at Patavium, in the consulship of Theodorus.”
Commentary:
Complements X.17: while rites are banned, temples themselves must not be destroyed if unused.
This protects architectural heritage and prevents mob violence.
Confirms a pragmatic imperial stance: cult is illegal, but art and architecture may remain, often repurposed.
Shows tension between zeal for destruction and state policy of preservation.
X.19 – Arcadius, Honorius, Theodosius II to Curtius, Praetorian Prefect (Rome, 399 CE)
Translation:
“The revenues of temples shall be diverted to the food supply for the army. Images still standing in temples or shrines, and which have received or are receiving pagan worship, shall be removed. This decree, often repeated, is now renewed.
The temple buildings, in cities or towns or rural areas, shall be reclaimed for public use. Altars shall everywhere be destroyed, and all temples on imperial estates shall be converted to useful purposes, the owners compelled to carry this out.
No one may hold banquets or ceremonies in honor of the sacrilegious rite in such places. Bishops are granted authority to enforce these prohibitions, alongside civil judges, who are fined twenty pounds of gold if negligent.
Dated 15 November (17th day before the Kalends of December), at Rome, in the consulship of Bassus and Philip.”
Commentary:
A sweeping confiscation law:
Temple revenues → army support.
Images removed, altars destroyed.
Temples repurposed as civic buildings.
Bishops now share enforcement power with judges — church and state integrated in suppressing paganism.
Harsh fines (20 lbs of gold≈ $737,000 USD) for officials ensure compliance.
This represents structural Christianization: temples are no longer just banned, but actively absorbed into the imperial economy and Christian infrastructure.
X.20 – Honorius & Theodosius II (Ravenna, 410 CE)
Translation (simplified for clarity):
“Pagan priests must be coerced unless they return from Carthage and other metropolitan centers to their home cities by the Kalends of November. Throughout Africa, the same applies: priests must leave the great cities.
All places once deemed sacred by the error of the ancients are to be placed under our authority, as decreed by Gratian. Any revenues or resources formerly devoted to superstition are to be transferred to the Christian church or to imperial use.
Associations such as the fratres, dendrophori, and all pagan collegia shall be abolished. Anyone who presumes to participate in them is liable to capital punishment.
Dated 30 August (3rd day before the Kalends of September), at Ravenna, in the consulship of Honorius (X) and Theodosius (VI).”
Commentary:
This decree finalizes the legal dismantling of pagan priesthoods and associations:
Priests are expelled from metropolitan centers (especially Carthage).
Pagan collegia (dendrophori, linked to Magna Mater’s cult; fratres, collegial brotherhoods) are dissolved.
Participation punished by death.
Temple property and revenues are transferred to the church and imperial treasury.
Marks the definitive integration of Christian religion into the imperial fiscal system.
Pagan cult is no longer just banned; it is erased institutionally.
415 CE, Hypatia of Alexandria murdered
X.21 – Theodosius II to Aurelian, Praetorian Prefect (416 CE)
Translation:
“Those who are polluted by the error or crime of profane pagan rites — that is, Gentiles — shall not be admitted to military service, nor honored with the dignity of administrator or judge.
Dated 7th day before the Ides of December, in the consulship of Theodosius (VII) and Palladius.”
Commentary:
This is a civil-disability law: pagans excluded from the army, judiciary, and administration.
Marks the final stage of marginalization — pagans cannot wield power, arms, or authority in the empire.
Confirms that paganism is treated as both error and crime.
Creates a system where imperial service and citizenship privileges are explicitly tied to Christian identity.
X.22 – Theodosius II and Valentinian III to Asclepiodotus, Praetorian Prefect (423 CE)
Translation (fragmentary):
“As for the pagans who remain (though we believe them now to be none), let them be restrained by the prescriptions long ago promulgated. Etc.
Dated 9 April, Constantinople, in the consulship of Asclepiodotus and Marinianus.”
Commentary:
The law almost dismisses paganism as extinct (“quamquam iam nullos credamus”).
Yet it reaffirms earlier prohibitions (sacrifices, cult practices, exclusions).
Serves as a kind of declarative statement: paganism is legally dead, though in practice remnants survive.
Illustrates the empire’s official narrative of total Christianization.
X.23 – Theodosius II and Valentinian III to Asclepiodotus, Praetorian Prefect (423 CE)
Translation:
“The pagans who remain, if ever they are caught in the abominable sacrifices of demons, although they are liable to capital punishment, shall instead be punished by confiscation of goods and exile.
Dated 6 June, Constantinople, in the consulship of Asclepiodotus and Marinianus.”
Commentary:
Reiterates the ban on sacrifice, calling them demon-worship.
Technically capital crimes, but here commuted to confiscation and exile.
Reflects a softening in practice: while paganism was criminalized, actual executions may have been rare by this point.
Suggests that paganism persisted quietly enough to require ongoing legislation.
X.24 – Theodosius II and Valentinian III to Asclepiodotus, Praetorian Prefect (423 CE)
Translation (abridged for clarity):
“Manichaeans, Pepyzites, and others who deviate from the common observance of Easter are to be punished with confiscation and exile.
But we especially order this: Christians, whether truly or by name, must not dare to attack Jews or pagans who live in peace and break no laws. If they violently assault them or plunder their goods, they must restore three- or fourfold. Rectors and officials who allow such crimes shall also be punished.
Dated 8 June, Constantinople, in the consulship of Asclepiodotus and Marinianus.”
Commentary:
Condemns Manichaeans and Pepyzites (an obscure sect) along with heretics.
Strikingly, this law protects Jews and pagans who live peaceably from Christian violence.
Reflects reality: popular zeal could erupt into mob attacks on minorities.
Shows the empire’s interest in maintaining public order: Christians were forbidden from taking “justice” into their own hands.
This demonstrates that although paganism was outlawed, pagans as individuals were not to be harassed outside of law.
X.25 – Theodosius II and Valentinian III to Isidore, Praetorian Prefect (435 CE)
Translation:
“Having long since forbidden all sacrificial rites, by authority of ancient decrees we again prohibit them. We command that all shrines, temples, and sanctuaries, if any remain intact, be destroyed at the order of magistrates, and that they be consecrated by the sign of the venerable Christian religion.
If anyone deceives a judge with false proofs in this matter, let him suffer capital punishment.
Dated 14 November (18th day before the Kalends of December), Constantinople, in the consulship of Theodosius (XV) and Valentinian (IV).”
Commentary:
The final blow: all remaining temples and shrines must be destroyed or Christianized.
Not just closure or repurposing — total erasure of pagan sacred space.
Magistrates are tasked with this work, and Christian symbols (crosses) are to replace pagan sanctuaries.
The threat of death penalty for deception underscores the seriousness of enforcement.
By 435 CE, this marks the legal extinction of pagan worship within the empire.
https://www.fourthcentury.com/persecution-sources/
Paganism= Anything other than Abrahamic religion?
Hardcore. This brought up so many questions about who did what and why.
Fundamentally, Christianity turned these nations of the empire into the worship of Jewish ancestors and contemporaries - plus a good portion of their laws. No doubt money was exchanged in this process.
Whereas previously, worship was dedicated to Roman, and before then Greek, ancestors as gods and their rituals - which didn't seem to have such controlling laws. Not dissimilar to modern secular Jews who flexibly maintain certain rituals and traditions only.